Fact checking in Asia – Part 5a Southeastern Asia.

“Fake news are created by humans. Thus, only humans can recognize and solve this issue.” This motto appears on the website of the government-run Vietnam Anti-Fake News Center.

Asia-Pacific and the reach of censorship.

This report examines the countries on the south-eastern tip of Asia, the Pacific Ocean islands nations, and Australasia. This includes, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam Malaysia, Philippines, and Singapore, Australia, and New Zealand. A report has already been published on Indonesian censorship. The five states that are on the southwest corner of Asia are bordered by China to the north, India to the East, the Bay of Bengal to the south and west, and the South China Sea to the south and east.

The southwest corner of Asia.

Myanmar

Myanmar is the largest of the five states in this region, and the most westerly. It was captured by the East India Company in the 19^th century, becoming a British colony known as Burma. Myanmar achieved independence from the British in 1948, but it has had an unsettled political history since then. In 2010 Myanmar moved towards democracy when the military junta was dissolved and an election was held, political prisoners were released, and freedoms were less restricted. Further elections were held in 2015 and 2020. However, when the charismatic politician Aung San Siu Kyi won the 2020 election, the Burmese military seized power in a coup d’etat, and since then Aung San Siu Kyi has been arrested and imprisoned.

Reporters Without Borders (RSF) stated that after the coup, press freedom was crushed within six months. During this period 98 journalists were arrested, and 43 journalists were held in Myanmar’s prisons. The majority were being prosecuted under article 505(a) of the criminal code, under which spreading “fake news” is punishable by three years in prison. Dozens of other journalists are working clandestinely or have fled the country in order to continue covering the story from abroad [1] here.

In 2024 it was reported that the Myanmar media, including newspapers, television, and radio, is largely dominated by government-owned outlets. These state-run platforms are align with the ruling party’s narrative, allowing the government to present a controlled version of news that often omits or distorts critical information [2] here.

In addition to state-controlled media, internet censorship is prevalent in Myanmar. The government monitors and restricts online content, including blocking access to websites deemed politically sensitive or harmful. Internet service providers are compelled to comply with government directives, curtailing citizens’ rights to access unfiltered information. This is regulated by the Communications Ministry that acts as a gatekeeper, ensuring that only compliant voices are heard [3] here.

In order to remain in the Myanmar market, shamefully Western social media has been compliant with the government’s demands. For example, an Amnesty International report stated that in 2017, Meta should have known that Facebook’s algorithmic systems were supercharging the spread of harmful anti-Rohingya content in Myanmar, but it failed to act. This was as the Rohingya were killed, tortured, raped, and displaced in a campaign of ethnic cleansing [4] here. In 2024, Facebook, Instagram, X and YouTube were still operating in Myanmar [5] here. According to an independent Myanmar online news outlet operating out of Australia, in 2025 changes to the Facebook content moderation system have made it easier for the Myanmar Junta to control information on Facebook [6] here.

The French newswire AFP is a third-party fact checker for Meta in Myanmar. Additionally, the Indian fact check platform Fact Crescendo moderates content. Both are IFCN verified. Myanmar had its own fact check platform, Real or Not Myanmar, which was registered with the IFCN. However, in 2025 this is no longer listed on the IFCN list of signatories. In 2021 after the coup, the Poynter Institute reported that staff were unable to work because they could not access their sources and Facebook was not operating at that time [7] here. No other fact check platforms in Myanmar were located.

Thailand.

Thailand is to the East of Myanmar, and its southern tip narrows into a peninsular that becomes part of Malaysia, which is examined in the next section. To its East is Laos and Cambodia. To the south is the Gulf of Thailand and Malaysia. Thailand was known as Siam until 1932. Some claim that the word ‘Thai’ means free, and hence Thailand is ‘the land of the free’; it was one of the few countries of South Asia that was not colonised by Europeans. It has a long history as a monarchy, going back 700 years, although the absolute monarchy ended in 1932 [8] here; it has since then alternated between democracy and military rule. There have been a series of protests against the government in Thailand in 2020-2021, and in 2023 [9] here and here.

RSF states that the 2023 protests were during the election campaign that was marked by intense debates about press freedom, particularly concerning Article 112 of the Criminal Code, a lèse-majesté law under which any criticism of the Thai monarchy can result in long prison sentences. The populist Move Forward party won the election. However, discussion on the lèse-majesté law halted in August 2024 with the dissolution of Move Forward by the Constitutional Court, citing its proposed amendments to Article 112 as a violation of the Constitution [10] here. Since 2023, the media does not have the same level of censorship as it had under military rule, but some media outlets been accused of avoiding any criticism of the government, including Mass Communication of Thailand (MCOT), a state-owned broadcaster. Others including Voice TV, became a de facto mouthpiece for the ruling party. Voice TV closed down in April 2024, with its many of its presenters and political commentators joining a state-owned media outlet. Challenges to press freedom and political change have for the moment stalled [11] here.

Internet freedoms in Thailand have deteriorated with the passage of new laws. In 2023, 88% of the Thai population had access to the Internet, particularly through the use of smartphones. New legislation includes the Computer Crime Act 2007 (CCA) and the Internal Security Act 2008 (ISA) [12] here. A report by the Asia Center opines: “The CCA is intrinsically problematic”. The report goes on to say that the provisions contain vague language open to varied interpretations by authorities. It is implemented selectively to block or remove undesirable content or to prosecute individuals who express opinions against the establishment or monarchy. The Act is also used by authorities to create an atmosphere of fear, leading to self-censorship.

The ISA provides a legal basis for the institutionalisation of state surveillance and information operations under the name of national security. The Internal Security Operations Command (ISOC) implements the provisions, and it takes actions that stifle key human rights. The ISOC is directed by the Prime Minister, and the Chief of Staff of the Army is the deputy director. The Asia Center report states that it creates a “deep state” condition, bypassing the national civilian administration. The ISOC is akin to an alternative government and has little to no accountability [13] here. However, in spite of this, social media platforms are widely used in Thailand, with no obvious restriction on Western providers. Meta, Google, YouTube and X are popular, as is the Japanese LINE and Chinese TikTok [14] here.

The Western style fact check platforms also operate in Thailand, with AFP fact checking on behalf of Meta. Fact Crescendo has a Thai subsidiary, Fact Crescendo Thailand [15] here. The Thai government also operates its own fact checking platform, initially though its media company MCOT Public Company Limited, named the Sure and Share Center (SSC). SSC is now operated through an organisation called The Media Fund (TMF). SSC was founded in 2016, in a partnership with ‘organisations, government offices, associations, and experts’. Its stated aim is to create ‘a stronger mechanism in providing reliable and trustful information for the public’ [16] here. SSC operates via LINE messaging app and Facebook Messenger.

TMF describes its mission to support the creation of safe and creative media. It does this via ‘public participation’, ‘media literacy’ and ‘media surveillance’. It aims to work with public, private, people, and NGOs. TMF states that it drives media literacy into the education system by providing information resources, supporting media literacy promotion, supporting research to develop in-depth knowledge. It funds media literacy programmes for children, youth and families. It also monitors the media, develops databases, innovates work focusing on issues (presumably potential contentious issues), and targets a wide range of audiences. TMF boasts that it creates a network where people are ‘aware of surveillance’ [17] here. The SSC also participated in the launch of the fact check platform Fake News Fighter in 2022.

The Fake News Fighter Project was launched with funding from the TMF as a collaboration between the SSC and Thammasat University’s Faculty of Journalism and Mass Communication [18] here. It is a fact checking initiative, intended to extend to all Thai media outlets, including newsrooms and broadcasters.

Hence fact checking in Thailand appears to be mainly a government-controlled project, and it complements the draconian censorship laws that have been passed in Thailand since 2007. It has not been possible to determine how far this project coordinates with its Western peers.

Laos.

Laos, to the east of Thailand, is the only land-locked country in this region. It has a history of invasion and domination, including by Siam (now Thailand), and as Europeans colonised the southeast corner of Aisa, it became a French protectorate, in 1904 and 1907. In World War Two Laos came under Japanese control, and after Japan’s defeat, instead of France leaving Laos as an independent country, it was granted limited autonomy within the French Union. Geneva Accords were signed in 1954 that marked the end of French rule in this region, but Loas remained divided, with part under the control of Laotian communists, and the remainder under a royal government. This resulted in civil strife until Laos inevitably became engulfed in the Vietnam War, Vietnam being its immediate Eastern neighbour. After the Americans left Vietnam, Laos was ruled by a communist government, until the fall of the Soviet Union when it underwent a restructuring programme, similar to that which happened in Russia and Eastern Europe. Although Laos has undergone significant changes since then, it retains a close relationship with its neighbours, China and Vietnam [19] here. It is frequently criticised for its poor human rights record, especially relating to minorities.

RSF states: “Laos, in which the state exerts complete control over the media, is an information “black hole” from which little reliable information emerges” [20] here. RSF goes on to explain that the Laotian government controls the media. Laos’ 24 newspapers, 32 television networks and 44 radio stations are required to follow the party line dictated by the Peoples’ Propaganda Commissariat, which is disseminated via three dailies that the ruling party publishes. Two foreign-language papers, the English-language Vientiane Times and the francophone Le Rénovateur, are also published an agency owned by the Ministry of Information and Culture. Lao National Radio is the most important information source for 70% of the population.

The government also tightly controls the internet in Laos. In February the government announced it was reducing the number of foreign internet connections in order to fight cybercrime. However, it reassured the Laotians that they were not intending to shut down foreign social media, including YouTube and Facebook, explaining: “Laos already controls internet servers via a gateway system, meaning all internet data passes through a central government-controlled system before reaching users” [21] here.

Laos’ internet laws in Laos explicitly prohibit certain types of information. Any criticism of the ruling party or its policies can lead to severe repercussions. Statements that question the legitimacy of government officials or advocate for political reform are often censored [22] here. This includes any content that questions the integrity or efficacy of government programs, economic initiatives, or social policies. Individuals who attempt to voice dissent can find themselves embroiled in legal troubles, as laws protect the governing body from any perceived insubordination. Such stringent controls severely limit participation in political dialogue, and this prevents the broadcast of diverse opinions. Additionally, topics such as ethnic minority issues, human rights, and social justice are considered to be off-limits [23] here.

No evidence was found of Western-style fact checking systems in Laos; it appears to be an information black hole, as described by the RSF.

Cambodia

Cambodia is to the south of Laos, and it has a similar history of European and American interference to that of its close neighbours, Vietnam to the south and east, and Laos to the north. Between the 9-15^th centuries, Cambodia was at the centre of the Khmer Empire, which stretched to cover the area that is now Thailand and Laos. The rulers built stunning temple complexes, notably Angkor Wat. This empire eventually fell into decline, and in the 19^th Century Cambodia like Laos and Vietnam became a French protectorate. Independence was regained in 1953. Inevitably, Cambodia was pulled into the Vietnam War, resulting in political instability. Pol Pot and his Khmer Rouge regime grabbed control of Cambodia in 1975 and implemented a radical agrarian form of communism. During the rule of the Khmer Rouge, 1.7 million people died due to execution, starvation, and forced labour. Some describe this era as genocide; it was ended by the Vietnamese taking control of Cambodia, until the United Nations oversaw a transition to democracy; however, it remains a politically unstable country.

This attempt at democratic transition in Cambodia began in the late 1980s. Initially, it allowed the emergence of a thriving media sector until former Prime Minister Hun Sen launched campaign against journalistic freedom in 2017. In 2023, Hun Sen handed over the rule of Cambodia to his son, Hun Manet, who has continued with the system of media control. The broadcasters and the few press outlets closely follow the government line, as do online media platforms. A small number of journalists now publish online from outside Cambodia. According to the RSF, the only organisation that provides independent news is the Cambodian Journalists Association (CamboJa). CamboJa also provides legal assistance to journalists that are arrested [24] here.

A report by the Asia Centre is very critical of internet restrictions in Cambodia; criticism includes harassment, censorship and media blackouts. Online discussions are held that are critical of the Cambodian government and its polices, whilst the government uses laws and proposed legislation to curb dissent found in cyberspace. Laws include the Penal Code, Law on Telecommunications, Inter-Ministerial Prakas (arbitration), the National Internet Gateway (NIG), and draft Cybercrime Law. These legislative tools are used to censor and increase surveillance of personal communications and facilitate the arrests and persecution of critics. The government is also accused of social media manipulation [25] here. In 2024, about 56% of the population of Cambodia used social media. The social media platforms available include Facebook, Instagram, and X [26] here.

Cambodia’s internet freedom is severely impacted by the NIG. The NIG not only enables authorities to control internet access and impose censorship, but it also assist in monitoring users and their online behaviour. Even without a centralised NIG, there are tight controls over internet activities by government authorities. In March 2020, Cambodia’s Ministry of Information established a Fake News Monitoring Committee with power to monitor social media and “block websites, accounts, or pages that promote false information that cause social unrest”. The popular online news channel TVFB was blocked and its editor-in-chief arrested for allegedly inciting social disorder after he shared comments made by the country’s Prime Minister [27] here.

The only fact check platform found in Cambodia was the Indian Fact Crescendo. It is not clear why Fact Crescendo has a presence in Myanmar, Laos and Cambodia, and who pays them for their operations in these three countries. There were no records found of third-party fact checking services in Cambodia. However, AFP is currently advertising for Khmer language fact check reporter and editor, and hence are likely to be moving its operations into Cambodia [28] here.

Vietnam.

Vietnam is the most easterly of the five countries in the southeast corner of Asia, with a long coastline that borders the South China Sea. Vietnam was colonised by the Chinese for one thousand years until the tenth century, when it became independent. In the nineteenth century it became a French protectorate, winning its independence in 1954. North Vietnam, that bordered with China had a communist rule, and South Vietnam had its own government, and was supported by the USA. The Vietnam War started in 1954 and continued until 1975. The aim of the North was to unite Vietnam as one communist country, whereas the USA was concerned about the spread of communism across Asia. America supplied military assistance from the start of the war; initially a small number of military advisers, but in the 1960 half a million US military personnel were stationed there. When the war ended, Vietnam was united under a communist government, as were Laos and Cambodia, and American forces left the region. Many South Vietnamese left Vietnam bound for Western countries, including Australia and the USA.

Vietnam’s legacy media is closely controlled by the single ruling party. Independent bloggers and journalists are the only sources of freely reported news and information in a country where all the media follow orders from the Communist Party. Those that take an independent line risk harassment and imprisonment. In November 2024, the American Legal Initiatives for Vietnam (LIV), in partnership with the American Vietnam Media Project (VMP) and The 88 Project, released a report titled Censorship in Vietnam – State Media Under Unprecedented Attack. This report examines how the concept of ‘press freedom’ is shaped in Vietnam and how the Vietnam Communist Party (VCP) uses the entire state apparatus to hinder the activities of independent local media and foreign press agencies. Its System of Control is composed the police, the state, and the Communist Party. These entities work together to effectively limit media freedom and restrict journalists using the 2016 Press Law, the 2018 Cybersecurity Law, and other legal provisions. The emergence of the internet initially saw the rise of independent media in Vietnam, but since 2016 through heavy crackdowns, the independent media has disappeared, leaving only a state-controlled media. Journalists who work there are forced to self-censor [29] here.

An internet censorship programme also operates in Vietnam. For example, government officials force social media platforms to remove posts that expressed political dissent, and authorities conducted a probe into the short-video application TikTok over its content moderation practices. Online magazines are closed down and fined if they cover news items that are not approved, and prison sentences are passed for offending posts, including an eight-year sentence for a Facebook page administrator [30] here.

The Western fact check industry has not penetrated into Vietnam. There is a Vietnam state fact checking platform that was launched in 2021, which is reported on by the Filippino fact check platform VERA Files. The Vietnam Fake News Center (VFNC) was fact-checking hot button issues at that time, including Covid, much to the approval of VERA [31] here. The Ministry of Information and Communication (MIC) joined with other agencies to create the VFNC to handle what it sees as violations on cyberspace, including fake news and social networks behaving as if they are newspapers or magazines, which it calls ‘newspaperism’. MIC has regular meetings with news sites and social networks, and has launched an app connecting to news websites and social networks through which it regularly warns, corrects and highlights the manifestations of their violations [32] here. Another located fact check project was the FactCheckVN project, which could only be located on a video format [33] here. One other fact check platform was for Vietnam living in the USA [34] here.

Conclusion – Southeast Asia.

This corner of the world, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam, are countries that are amongst the least penetrated by Western fact checkers. This may be because of their past experiences of colonisation and war, that has made the country leaders suspicious of any Western involvement. Each of these countries has a tight hold on the control of information within their boundaries, and they each have extensive legislation for controlling the media and the internet. They all openly express the need for surveillance of their populations, and the need to control information in order to achieve stability. The fact check platforms that exist are mainly government funded, and government controlled. Whether freedom of expression is restricted and controlled by Western power brokers or local autocrats, it is still repressive.

The reports on media restrictions used in this report are mainly from American organisations, such as RSF and Freedom House, who are themselves compromised in the censorship industry, and may have a different perspective from those who live and work in southeast Asia. For example, it is possible that some may prefer their own leaders to control their media rather than risk giving up their sovereignty to a foreign power. However, this is speculative, but the sources used for this report are not impartial, though they may try to be.

It is also important to note, on reading through criticisms of the restrictions on media and internet freedom, in many instances there are parallel situations in Britain and European countries. People have been given long prison sentences for a social media post, journalists have been imprisoned for journalism, and media and draconian internet laws are designed to deflect criticism of government, and act as a censorship tool in countries that claim to be liberal democracies. Similarly, the repressive laws relating to freedom of expression are getting more onerous in countries that are dictatorships, and also those that claim to be free. The lesson is that we all need to pull together to protect our freedoms and to release our media from central control. In that way, we will all find democracy.